Understanding Emotions through Parent-Child Talk

Understanding Emotions through Parent-Child Talk Introduction Although there is a large body of literature focused on childrens understanding of emotions and another body focused on parent-child conversation about emotions, little research has examined parent-child talk about complex emotions. The majority of research is dedicated to simple emotions and their functions in childrens life. However, the studies which are dedicated to simple emotions admit the sufficient importance of parent-child interaction for better emotional understanding. The emerging of complex emotions become a disputable process, moreover these emotions are functionally more complicated than simple. The following research has argued the importance of parent-child conversation in terms of understanding complex emotions by children. To account for this gap in the literature, the present study focuses on parent child talk about complex emotions. To understand this topic, a review of the literature on complex emotions is needed. Much past research has looked at ambivalent emotions. However, researchers use different names such as ambivalent emotions (Donaldson Westerman, 1986), mixed emotions (Harris, 1989a, 1989b; Harter Buddin, 1987; Kestenbaum Gelman, 1995), conflicting emotions (Bennet Hiscock, 1993) and multiple emotions (Meerum Terworgt, Koops, Oosterhoff, Olthof, 1986; Wintre Vallance, 1994). There are many definitions that these authors use, but in spite of this fact, these authors express the similar idea about this kind of emotion: when an individual has two contradictory feelings at the same time. For instance, we may be happy to receive a present, but disappointed at the same time, as a present is not what we have expected to receive. Childrens understanding of emotions is a gradual process that develops from simple types of emotions to more complex ones (Tenenbaum, Visscher, Pons, Harris, 2004). According to Pons, Harris, de Rosnay. (2004) and Tenenbaum et al. (2004) the understanding of emotions has three broad categories which develop gradually: external, mentalistic, and reflective. The external component consists of recognizing faces, the ability to realise emotions when they are affected by different external circumstances and understanding the fact that past emotions might affect present ones. Recognizing faces means that children start identifying emotions according to a facial expression. Then, they understand how external cases can cause different feelings and the last component is when they realize that some subjects from the past might cause emotions in the present. This type of emotion understanding usually develops among children between the ages three to five. The second component, mentalistic emot ions, contains of realizing beliefs and desires, also identifying the difference between real and apparent emotions. Children start assuming the idea that people may have different emotional reactions due to the fact that they have dissimilar desires. The same situation occurs with beliefs, as children start understanding that peoples beliefs will influence their emotions to a situation. The last element is when children can understand the link between memory and emotions, for example, the strength of emotions might reduce with time. The authors claim that this process usually occurs between the ages five to seven. Finally, the third component consists of reflective emotions which include moral, regulated and ambivalent emotions. Children start experiencing several moral emotions such as guilt, shame or embarrassment when their actions did not correlate with generally accepted rules. They also start realizing the way they can control their emotions, using either behavioural or psych ological strategies. The last stage is an understanding that people might have two different emotions at the same time. Overall, the third component usually emerges at ages seven to nine. That classification is widely used in terms of defining emotions. Consequently, ambivalent emotions, which are one of the primary aims of the following work, are situated at the third level and presented to be one of the most complicated emotional categories to understand. Some authors (Donaldson Westerman, 1986; Harter Buddin, 1987) created a model of ambivalent emotions which consists of four different stages. This model was invented after clinical observations of play therapy. Children used to experience problems in understanding two emotions at the same time. Consequently, a question about developing of understanding of mixed emotions arouses. The following model consists of four stages including such factors as valence (positive or negative emotions) and a target (one or several targets). The stages are presented gradually from the least to the most advanced. The first level, which usually arises at seven years old, is presented the same valence and target, where two positive or two negative emotions are expressed towards one object (e.g., A boy was happy and excited because of his birthday). The second level, which might emerge around eight years old, is represented as same valence, but different targets (e.g., A girl was happy about her birthd ay and excited that so many guests had came). The third combination, usually develops at ten years old, is shown as different valence and targets (e.g., A boy was sad he could not go for a walk, but happy because he could watch TV). Finally, the fourth combination, arises approximately at 11 years old and consists of different valence and same target, a child has different feelings towards one object or situation (e.g., A girl was happy to go for holiday with parents, but sad to leave her friends). Though, authors give an explanation that understanding and experience may not be contemporary, as it is possible that a child might experience two emotions at the same time, but not be able to realize it yet. Though, there is a contradictory view about the levels of emotional development. Wintre and Vallance (1994) present their theory where alongside with multiple emotions and valence, they also depicted the intensity of emotions. Based on several previous studies, they offered the theory of development of understanding mixed emotions, which include such components as intensity and valence and multiplicity. For example, at level A that emerges usually at 4 years, there might be observed only intensity directed to one situation, though valence and multiplicity have not arouse yet. At level B which develop around 5 years old, children may recognize several mixed emotion of the same valence, but they do not use different intensity. Next level C, usually arise at 6 years old, where intensity is combined with mixed emotions, but there is only the same valence involved yet. At the last level D, which might emerge at 8, where children show the ability to use all three components together. Besid es they differentiate not only stages and the main components of emotional understanding of ambivalent emotions, but the age of emerging as well. Thus, for Harter and Budden (1987) the last stage might be reached children approximately by ages 10 and 11, whereas for Wintre and Vallence (1994) the period for the last component is age 8. However, there is another arguable point is the age period at which complex emotions arise. For example, several studies (Donaldson Westerman, 1986; Meerum Terwogt et al., 1986; Harter Buddin, 1987; Harris, 1989a, 1989b; Pons et al., 2004; Tenenbaum, 2008) pointed to the approximate period of developing complex emotions from seven to eight years old until eleven to twelve. To illustrate this point, there are several examples based on the studies. According to Harter Buddin (as cited in Donaldson Westerman, 1986) understanding of ambivalent emotions is quite a late cognitive process. She found that children were not able to distinguish emotions that occur simultaneously toward the same person until ten and a half years old. Taking into consideration her study, Donaldson and Westerman (1986) replicated the findings, showing that though few characteristics of understanding ambivalence appeared at seven to eight years old, only older children of ten to eleven showed this ability enti rely. A study conducted by Harter and Buddin (1987) supported the fact of gradual development of understanding ambivalent emotions. Thus, children four to five ages cannot believe that two feelings could be together, six to eight years old placed feelings in temporal order as when a child did not see the object which had caused his emotions, he simply forgot about it. However, children from eight to twelve usually can describe the appearance of two emotions at the same time. Meerum Terwogt (1986) argued that ten year old child understood the fact of having both emotions equally strong, but younger children had always chosen one to be stronger than another. They present an example of two groups of children: six and ten years old. Undoubtedly, ten years old children understand ambivalent emotions more often than six years old children, especially if the situation consists of opposite valence emotions. To sum up these studies, the most widespread period of time when mixed emotions deve lop is from seven to twelve years old. Though, there are some authors (Gnepp and Klayman, 1992; Wintre and Vallance, 1994) whose studies admit the arising of understanding two simultaneous emotions at the age of 8. They gave some explanations for this, where not only cognitive factor plays a crucial role, but social experience also becomes an important factor. Consequently, these authors did not share either late or early emerging of mixed emotions. However in spite of all these findings, there are other studies, which contradict the idea of such a late arising of ambivalent emotions. For instance, Kestenbaum and Gelman (1995) pointed that the development of mixed emotions appeared between ages four and six. Children of four and five years old can recognize ambivalent emotions when they are presented in a facial expression, even if they were on the same face (sad eyes and happy mouth), as well as on a picture with two-headed alien who expressed different emotions. Moreover, the results confirm that five year old children might understand mixed emotions within a simple story. Furthermore, it was offered two levels of understanding emotions at the preschool ages. The first one is recognition of ambivalent emotions showing on the face. The second level is an ability to match a face that expressed mixed emotions with a situation. All in all authors claim that this is a gradual process which starts early and increases with age. Their findings contradict the other researches which admit that a development of mixed emotions is a process starting much later. Likewise, Brown Dunn (1996) mentioned that even six years old children might show an understanding of mixed emotions when they are given a slight prompt about feelings of characters in stories. Similarly, Harris, P. L., Johnson, C. N., Hutton, D., Andrews, G., Cooke, T. (1989 a) consider the fact that even young children may predict about different emotions in a more advanced way. Even children between the ages of three to seven are very sensitive to other peoples desires, emotions and beliefs. Moreover, they do not merely take into account a situation by itself, but modify their reaction due to different situational changes. That in case might show childrens advanced ability to understand second mentalistic component: beliefs and desires. Considering this fact, they suggest that understanding of the second level arouse at three, but set up only between the ages five to six years. Consequently, the next level to develop will be the third, which contains moral, ambivalent and regulated emotions. The possible explanation of this phenomena could be found in Harriss (1989 b) study, he pointed that even in a behaviour of one-year-olds might be seen the ambivalence, whereas conscious realization does not arise before seven or eight years old. He stressed that children start expressing ambivalence quite earlier, but understanding it emerges only from eight to ten, young children can merely express ambivalence without understanding of this fact. To sum up all the previous research made according to this topic, it can be clearly seen that these studies implied a large range of age when complex emotions appear in the childhood. Though, it might be criticised the period of appearance of mixed emotions. As if to consider all researchers, described earlier, there are some who consider the emergence of ambivalent emotions as a very early process (between ages 4 to 6 years old). Some consider it to be the late process (between 9 to 12 years old). Besides, there are some who support the idea of appearance of multiple emotions at age 8. However, the researchers who offered the late period of appearance ambivalent emotions might be criticised for a big age gap between groups. For example, in the research of Meerum Terwogt et al. (1986), they conducted their study with two groups of children by ages 6 and 10. What may be considered not exactly relevant, as during these 4 years undoubtedly children will have a great step forward in term s of understanding ambivalent emotions. In present study the age group of seven, eight and nine were chosen in order to observe the difference between the age group according to rather contradictory fact of arising the understanding of mixed emotions. However, there are some findings that admit the fact of emerging mixed emotions quite early (Harris et al., 1989a; Kestenbaum Gelman, 1995; Brown Dunn, 1996), the excessive amount of research claim the period from seven to twelve years old. Taking into consideration both contradicting findings together, it was decided to concentrate the research on the following groups of children due to some reasons. For instance, such ages as seven, eight and nine present an ideal age group where ambivalent emotions might just have started and developed at the late stage. Besides, it appeared to be not enough amounts of studies to support the idea of early development of mixed emotions, hence, children of younger ages were not considered. Moreover, according to Harriss (1989 b) study, whe re his notable remark cannot be ignored, children might notice the ambivalence, but not understand it. As the major aim of this work is to find out when mixed emotions are understood by children, these period of ages were chosen. Parent-child conversation One way in which children understand emotions may be through the family via interaction with parents (Dunn et al., 1991; Harris, 2004; Racine et al., 2007). Different researchers have examined different types of conversations that may support childrens understanding. For example, Engel (as cited in Fivush Fromhoff, 1988) described two maternal styles, which are called: conversation-eliciting and directive. The first one is characterized by asking many questions, rare interruption of children, and a regular tendency to integrate a childs answer what in turn leads to more equal and productive conversation. The second type is characterized by different types of commands, frequent interaction in childs actions, as well as the high parental control during the conversation. Another classification was offered by Reese Fivush (1993) and Reese, E., Haden, C.A. Fivush, R (1993) and it claimed that childrens understanding emotions correlates with the parental conversational style. They offered two parental styles: high – elaborative and low- elaborative. For instance parents with high-elaborative style, which consists of a lot of details, explanations, always try to arouse childrens interest. On the contrary there is other kind of style called low-elaborative where parents ask simple questions during their interaction with children and give them little new information and quite often change topics of conversation. Similar types of maternal styles were offered by Fivush and Fromhoff (1988) where the styles are called: elaborative and repetitive. Elaborative mothers are likely to provide a lot of details during the discussion and tend to ask many open-ended and complex questions during the interaction. On the contrary, mothers who have repetitive conv ersational style tend to ask yes/no questions; do not provide so much detailed information during the discussion. Besides, the authors depict that elaborative style is significantly better for children to remember past events during the conversation. Overall, all previous research concerning maternal style of conversation was summarized (Reese et al., 1993) The mothers who are more engaged in a conversation with their children – elaborative, high-elaborative, reminiscing or topic-extending and mothers who are less involved in a communication process – repetitive, low elaborative, practical remembers or topic-switching (p. 404). There are many studies that support the link between parent-child conversation and childrens emotional understanding (Dunn, Bretherton Munn, 1987; Fivush Fromhoff, 1988; Dunn, J., Brown, J., Slomkowski, C., Tesla, C., Youngblade, L., 1991; Dunn Brown, 1994; Brown Dunn, 1996; Steele et al., 1999; Pons et al., 2003; Laible Song, 2006). Some of the authors connect emotional understanding with maternal attachment (Brown Dunn, 1996; Steele et al., 1999; Pons et al., 2003), the other with the quality of maternal speech (Dunn et. al., 1987; Dunn Brown, 1994). To begin with, there is as well a link between quality of parent-child attachment and the quality of family talk about emotions with childrens emotional understanding (Pons et al., 2003). Brown and Dunn (1996) also consider a possibility that childrens development of ambivalent emotions can depend upon the family where a child grows. Moreover the findings, presented by Steele et al. (1999) suggested that the development of secure mother-child attachment at one year helps to shape a good understanding of mixed emotions later at six years. Much past work has argues that when mothers talk a lot about emotions, children consequently start using more emotional words in conversation (Dunn et. al., 1987). However, , children in families in which the use of negative emotions is greater than positive emotions may have some difficulties expressing and recognizing emotions (Dunn Brown, 1994). Studies conducted by Dunn et al. (1991) showed a significant link between the parent-child conversation and childrens emotional understanding. Thus children whose parents spoke with them a lot about emotions at the age of 3 demonstrated better understanding about the emotions of unfamiliar adults at the age of 6 in comparison with the children who did not experience feeling- state talk so frequently. Laible (2004) and Thompson et al. (as cited in Laible and Song, 2006) argue that style is more influential than content. Parent- child conversation helps children realise different situations of everyday life, especially if these situations are not so obvious to see. That usually includes emotions, motives and intentions. Besides, when mothers involved with children into conversation about past experience, they not only give their children an emotional understanding of the past, but also bring extra knowledge for future experience. The other findings of Laible Song (2006) indicated that parent-child discourse was a crucial predictor of the childs socio-emotional development. For example, during the given task if mother used more elaborative style rather than repetitive, children had higher scores on emotional understanding. The similar results were presented by Steele et al. (1999) where children and parents language abilities did not affect childrens understanding of ambivalent emotions, what in turn depicted the fact about the major influence of socio-emotional rather than cognitive elements. Considering all previous research conducted on this topic, it is without doubt the effect that parent-child conversation plays in terms of childrens emotional understanding. However, some studies use different core point to correlate this connection, the influence is still might be observed. Particularly, the more elaborative and positive discourse parents and children have, better emotional understanding children express in comparison with children whose parents use low-elaborative style, and consequently these results show the great impact of parental conversation with children on childrens emotional understanding. The same situation is presented with an attachment, the more secure attachment is observed between mother and child, and the better emotional understanding will be expressed by a child later. Hence, the parent-child conversation was chosen in order to correlate it with childrens understanding of mixed emotions. Parent child discourse may however vary with child gender. That is the importance of gender difference in terms of parent-child interaction, which cannot be denied, although the studies are rather controversial, thus some researches refute it (Racine et al., 2007; Dunn et al., 1991) and some support (Dunn et al., 1987; Fivush, 1991;Kuebli Fivush, 1992; Reese Fivush, 1993; Cervantes Callanan, 1998). To begin with, there are examples of several studies which support the gender difference in parent-child interaction. The findings of Dunn et al. (1987) claimed that mothers had more communication with girls rather than boys and later girls referred to emotional states more often than boys. Moreover, mothers expressed more emotional words to daughters rather than to sons. Consequently, girls used more feelings words during the discourse in comparison with boys. Though authors pointed one of the limitations to be a small sample of children who took part in the research, the studies made afterwards can support these results. Namely, Reese Fivush (1993) argued that parents of daughters expressed more elaborative style than parents of boys and the authors believed that due to more prolonged conversation with daughters, they can grow up to produce more elaborative narrative style in comparison with sons. The authors admit that in the majority of cases parent-daughter pairs involved in more detailed conversation and as well as this style required more involvement of childrens memory, daughters may develop more elaborative style in comparison with sons. Similar results are presented by Kuebli Fivush (1992) where they admit parents of daughters use quite more emotional words in comparison with parents of sons. Their study shows that parents speak more about sadness with girls rather than with boys. Besides, the study conducted by Cervantes Callanan (1998) also showed the gender difference for children at the age of 2 but not at the age 3 and 4 in terms of childrens tal k, there were also gender-related differences in mothers talk for using more explanations for boys and more labels for girls. In the light of this evidence, it is obvious that if there is a gender difference during parent-child conversation, parents usually pay more attention to interaction with girls rather than with boys, that is why the aspect of gender difference seemed to be quite significant in the present study. One good point might summarize the gender difference idea. Though, mothers tend to socialize with a child in different ways according to the gender. Besides, it may be that boys and girls are experiencing and discussing emotions in different ways and consequently, their mothers simply respond to this difference (Fivush, 1991). All things considered, in the following study, there is an aim to find out whether parent-child discourse about mixed emotions plays a significant role in childrens understanding of these emotions. Based on a substantial literature (ref), the first hypothesis predicted that the more parents explain complex emotions, the better children will understand emotions. A second related hypothesis is that the more emotion words parents use, the better the childs emotional understanding will be. The third hypothesis is that parents will use more emotion words with girls than boys and consequently, girls will use more emotion words in comparison to boys. Method Participants. The participants were 16 parent–child pairs. Children were dived for three groups according to their age: the younger group was 7 years (M = 7.5, ranging from 7 years, 4 months to 7 years, 10 months), 8 years (M = 8.48, ranging from 8 years, 1 month to 8 years, 9 months) and 9 years (M = 9.42, ranging from 9 years, 1 month to 9 years, 8 months). There were both 5 children at the group of 7 and 9 years old and 6 children at the age group 8 years old. Overall there were nine boys and seven girls. Participants and their parents were recruited from one primary school in Dunstable. All participants were white British. It is notable that all parents that took part in this study were mothers; no fathers participated in the research. The majority of mothers (12 people) were employed, 1 mother was employed, but worked at home and 3 mothers were homemakers. All mothers have educational background ranging from primary school to university. Materials The session with each pair will be held only once. To begin with, it is notable to mention that the books were chosen for this research as a discussion in general seems to be a quite crucial for children in order to reach better emotional understanding. Therefore, in the joint activity, such as reconstruction of events, adults give an idea for children what emotions are appropriate and inappropriate for different situations (Fivush, 1991). A created story book which contains 6 vignettes about 3 complex, 2 regulated and 1 moral emotions. The book was created by the researcher and was particularly organised for boys and girls separately. The story was about two children: a boy – Peter and a girl – Anna, who took part in several activities, such as: passing an exam, having a birthday, going to amusement park, home interaction, his/her friend leaving. There was one question concerning emotions for every situation to which a child was involved in. The second book is called F rog goes to dinner by Mercer Mayer (1974). This book contains several vignettes, presenting a story about a boy who has a frog. Accidentally, a frog goes to dinner with a boy and his parents without being noticed by anybody. A frog spoiled the dinner and the parents were very angry with a boy. The important fact is that this book is wordless; obviously the task was to create a story together. This particular method was chosen because Kestenbaum and Gelman (1995) pointed the importance of presenting information to children during the research not only verbally, but giving photographs or drawings as stimuli. To justify their point, there were two reasons presented in their study. The first reason is that a facial expression helps children understand emotions significantly better. The second reason is that the absence of pictures might cause some difficulties as children might not know how two different emotions can be expressed at the same time. After reading two books with the parent s, children were tested by the Test of Emotional Comprehension which was created by Pons, Harris and de Rosnay (2004). The TEC presents vignettes in which a gender-matched protagonist encounters simple to complex situations that elicit different emotional responses. After each vignette, the child is asked how the protagonist is feeling, by choosing from four illustrations of faces representing different emotional states (Tenenbaum et al., 2004). The TEC consists of nine sections which included several pictures and a question about emotional condition of protagonist. Though, the first section requires naming emotions that the faces show. The second includes the situation where a book character expresses the influence from external factors. The third one consists of desires that a protagonist expresses. The fourth factor involves understanding of false beliefs and the way they influence on emotions. The fifth section expresses the situation with reminders that might influence on childrens present condition. The sixth one asks children to control their emotions. The seventh section includes hidden emotions that a child should define. The eighth factor presents the situations with mixed emotions, particularly on what this study focuses. The last component involves understanding of moral emotions. Parents were offered to fill in a Parent Questionnaire which contains several questions about background information and social economic status. Procedure. Parents with children read two books: one is created by the researcher and another is Frog goes to dinner by Mercer Mayer. The first book was created by the researcher and concluded six situations including such emotions as mixed, moral and regulated. A task required to read the stories and a child should have answered an offered question. It was not specially defined who suppose to read a book. Consequently, mothers could read it as well as children, or they could do it in an order. The vignettes, which were presented in a book, concerned several situations at school, at home, at an amusement park, on holidays. For example, a situation for girls that involved mixed emotions: Annas birthday is during summer holiday, so she can do everything shed like to do- ride a bicycle, play with friends and eat ice-cream! Her parents decided to arrange a birthday party for Anna. She likes parties very much and a lot of guests will bring gifts to her. But her best friend, Lola, is unwell and now s he cant go to Annas birthday party. Anna wants Lola to come so much. How does Anna feel now? After reading a created book together, they were offered to make up a story together. A book Frog goes to dinner by Mercer Mayer (1974) was used as a good example of wordless story. These two tasks were chosen in order to give parents and children enough time to interact with each other. Moreover, they both contain different emotional situations describing which should promote an excessive usage of emotions. After making up a story a child was tested with the Test of Emotional Comprehension, which was created by Pons, Harris and de Rosnay (2004) in order to measure the period of time when children start understanding different emotions. The model of Pons, Harris and de Rosnay (2004) was accepted as the main one in a theoretical description of emotional understanding of complex emotions. Besides, the test consists of pictures, and the questions are always asked by a researcher. It is also very convenient for children to conduct this test due to the absence of necessity to read. Consequently, their test was assumed to be relevant to use during the research. Besides, it is worth mentioning that the researcher was trained before to conduct this test, as the requirements were to conduct it with neutral voice, do not give any prompts to children which emotions a protagonist might express. During conducting the TEC with children, parents were offered to fill in the Parent Questionnaire which contains of such sections as child and parents names, childs age, date of birth and birth order, also social economical situation of parents (ethnicity, occupation, level of education, marital status). Besides, parents signed a consent form which stated that they and their children agreed to take part in the present research and they did not object to be video taped. Moreover, this form included all information about research, it was also mention that parents were free to withdraw at any time they want from the study and contact details of researchers were provided. Children were asked oral permission if they agreed to help a researcher to conduct the study and neither parents nor children refused. Parents were given a choice to stay or leave during a conducting the TEC with children, but it is worth mentioning that all parents were present during childrens testing. Coding A created book that was basically consisted of 6 vignettes was scoring in the following way. It is notable that in terms of this book the amount of using em

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Prostate cancer is the second most common cancer and it is the second leading cause of cancer death in American men according to the American Cancer Society(ACS) ( 2016). Older age is the strongest risk factor for the development of prostate cancer. Approximately 1 in 7 men will be diagnosed with prostate cancer during his lifetime (ACS, 2016). There are more than 2.9 million prostate cancer survivors in the United States (ACS, 2016). The risk of dying from prostate cancer is 2.9 percent, with seventy percent of deaths occurring after age 75(ACS, 2016; Howlader, Krapcho, Neyman,Aminou et al, 2011). The use of the prostate-specific antigen testing transformed prostate cancer screening in the 1990’s (Up to date) . PSA screening for prostate†¦show more content†¦Many studies have been conducted to evaluate prostate screening. The Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian (PLCO) Cancer Screening Trial, which NCI conducted to establish whether certain screening tests can he lp reduce the numbers of deaths from several common cancers. In the prostate section of the trial, the PSA test and digital rectal exam(DRE) were evaluated for their ability to decrease a man’s chances of dying from prostate cancer. PLCO trial randomly assigned 76,685 men aged 55 to 74 years to annual PSA screening for 6 years (and concomitant digital rectal examination for 4 years) or to usual care (Adroile, Crawford, Grubb et al, 2012). It used a PSA cutoff of 4.0 ÃŽ ¼g/L. Diagnostic follow-up for positive screening test results and treatment choices were made by the participant and his personal physician; 90% of men with prostate cancer diagnoses received active treatment (surgery, radiation, hormonal therapy, or some combination(Adroile, Crawford, Grubb et al, 2012). After 7 years (complete follow-up), a nonstatistically significant trend toward increased prostate cancer mortality was seen in the screened group (RR, 1.14 [CI, 0.75 to 1.70]) compared with men in the contro l group (Andriole, Crawford Grubb et al., 2009). The PLCOShow MoreRelatedProstate Cancer : The Most Common Cancer950 Words   |  4 Pages Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in American men aside from skin cancer. Out of six American men at least one of them will be diagnosed with colon cancer. The prostate is a small gland shaped like a walnut that is in the center of a man s body within the pelvis. The prostate makes a milky fluid that carries sperm during ejaculation. It is wrapped around the tube that carries urine out of the body (the urethra). It sits just below the bladder. Prostate cancer is more common in AfricanRead MoreProstate Cancer : The Most Common Types Of Cancer1576 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Prostate cancer is one of the most common types of cancer in men. According to the American Cancer Society, â€Å"there are nearly 3 million prostate cancer survivors in the United States today and this number is expected to increase to almost 4.2 million by 2024. Most prostate cancers (93%) are diagnosed at the local or regional stage, before the cancer has spread to surrounding organs. Treatment at these early stages is often very successful, and the 5-year relative survival rate approachesRead MoreProstate Cancer : The Second Most Common Type Of Cancer1510 Words   |  7 PagesProstate cancer is the second most common type of cancer diagnosed in men around the world today. Despite years of research, little is known as to the exact cause of prostate cancer, making it an area of intense research in medicine today. The pathology of prostate cancer has yielded important information on prevention, diagnosis and treatment methods. It has been understood that diet has much to do with tumour growth, and new research into nutrition is revealing new strategies in prostate cancerRead MoreDetecting Prostate Cancer : Cancer And Second Most Common Cancer Death Among Men2187 Words   |  9 PagesDetecting Prostate Cancer According to Ferrante, Shaw, and Scott (2011), prostate cancer is the most common cancer and second most common cancer death among men in the United States. Early detection permits appropriate and timely management, which can allow clinicians to treat the cancer effectively. When detected at early or regional stage, prostate cancer has a five-year survival rate of about 100%. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is the most widely used tumor marker and was approved by the FDARead MoreProstate Cancer Informative speech Essay example767 Words   |  4 PagesWhat is the Prostate? The prostate is a gland in the male reproductive system, which makes and stores a fluid that nourishes sperm. The prostate gland is about the size of a walnut, and surrounds the upper part of the urethra, the tube that empties urine from the bladder. If the prostate gland grows too large, the flow of urine can be slowed or stopped. Prostate Cancer Prostate cancer is the most common type of cancer in men in the United States (other than skin cancer), and accounts for moreRead MoreEssay about Prostate Cancer1002 Words   |  5 PagesProstate Cancer Eng 101 Andrell Nash Fortis College Abstract Prostate Cancer is a disease in which there is an uncontrolled growth of cells that lines the ducts of the prostate gland. The abnormal cells can spread throughout the prostate and nearby organs, such as the seminal vesicles. If not caught early they can spread (metastasized) to other organs of the body through the lymph or blood stream. (â€Å"...Treatment...† 13) Prostate Cancer can be like a silent killer. Some may show signs and symptomsRead MoreProstate Cancer : The Diagnosis Process, And Possible Treatment Options For The Disease1714 Words   |  7 Pagescarcinoma, or prostate cancer, in their lifetime (American Cancer Society, 2015). This scary statistic proves just how serious prostate cancer is. According to the American Cancer Society, an estimated 180,000 cases of prostate cancer are diagnosed in the United States. Of the 180,000, 32,000 result in death from the disease each year (American Cancer Society, 2015). This paper will explore what prostate cancer is, the diagnosis process, and possible treatment options for the disease. Cancer of theRead MoreRenal Cell Carcinoma Of The Kidney Cancer Essay1470 Words   |  6 PagesThe most common genitourinary cancers include, renal cell carcinoma of the kidney, transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder, and adenocarcinoma of the prostate. 1- Renal cell carcinoma, is the most common cancer of the kidney, accounts for approximately 90% of all renal malignancies. About 65,000 cases of renal cell carcinoma are diagnosed each year in the U.S. Despite advances in diagnosis, especially improved imaging techniques and the incidental diagnosis of many tumors with imaging tests forRead MoreEssay about Prostate Cancer1132 Words   |  5 PagesProstate Cancer Cancer of the prostate, a common form of cancer, is a disease in which cancer (malignant) cells are found in the prostate. The prostate is on the male sex glands, and is located just below the bladder and in front of the rectum. The size of the prostate is about the size of a walnut. 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The s Concept Of Cultural Odor And Fragrance And Girls ...

The Kim Sisters, Wonder Girls, and Girls’ Generation, and Nicki Minaj reveal the same aspect of gender ideology: sexualized female commodities. However, through the process of globalization, they are represented in different contexts in terms of time and place. Also, feminine sexualities are depicted in different theme in regard with the level of cultural adaptation, appropriation, or subversion in the process of globalization. Koichi Iwabuchi’s concept of cultural odor and fragrance and Sun Jung’s concept of transculturality as hybridity help understand the similar but different aspects in each music video. Before thriving the globalization, the Kim Sister’s music video reveals the replication of American feminine sexuality: cultural†¦show more content†¦Wonder Girls reveal the cultural appropriation to represent their otherness in their performance, affected by polycentric cultural globalization and advancement and transformation in the cultural technologies. Basically, the group seems to gain the motif from African-American female groups in America in the Sixties, who were very popular, and whose sexual appeal was outstanding. Wonder Girls imitate the U.S. feminine sexualities in Fifties and Sixties through their outfits, hair, and the gender role as the background singers. They attempt to remind the audience of the sexual fantasy in the past. However, Wonder Girls appeal their indigenized feminine sexuality as well. For example, they turn their subordinated and marginalized roles as singers into the main singers who are spotlighted and become popular. It reveals moder nized female sexualities that Korean women have developed. The mix of two different cultural femininities would help develop sexual fantasy. It appeals to the viewers not only in the U.S., but also in other Asian countries. In the same vein, in the Girls’ Generation’s music video, â€Å"I got a boy†, two fold of aspects of feminine gender and sexuality are represented in the context of polycentric cultural globalization and cultural adaptation. One is cultural feminine typicality, such as aegyo, the other is girl’s empowerment, such as

Productive Techniques for Literature Review Essay Samples You Can Use Immediately

Productive Techniques for Literature Review Essay Samples You Can Use Immediately You will find out more about what an essay is, what its objective is, and the way you can successfully accomplish it. An essay is generally a brief bit of writing on a specific topic. You are going to be able to review a sample essay. The literature review essay is one significant method of communicating new ideas. The more you read, the better you're comprehend the specific demands for literature in a specific study. For example, the sperm whale review could concentrate on the evolution of the harpoon for whale hunting. The analysis is devoted to the general analysis of commerce in sports, its history and contemporary tendencies. What to Expect From Literature Review Essay Samples? The ending of the essay needs to be firm and sum up the full article. A literature review example will therefore be a fantastic material to direct you on how best to grow the worth of your paper. A standard metho d of the way to compose a literature essay body is by using three or more paragraphs. If you'd like excellent paper essay examples, reach out to us here today and we'll do our very best to supply you with the most suitable help. Literature Review Essay Samples Can Be Fun for Everyone Think of what aspects of your literature review topic haven't yet been explored. When you begin to outline literature review writing, make sure you've included everything you've got on the map. There are particular things you have to do before you compose a literature review. You don't have to strain to compose your abstract while we have a great literature review abstract example to assist you. The Appeal of Literature Review Essay Samples In addition, don't neglect to ask if you should have a critique of your sources if it's necessary to give an evaluation. It's possible for you to receive a literature review paper example of your choice simply by clicking the appropriate button. 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Spending lots of time revising is a smart idea, because your principal goal is to present the material, not the argument. One reason why it's ch allenging to compose it is the fact that it needs a lot of time to read because many books or journals as possible. A literature review discusses published information in a specific subject area, and at times information in a distinct subject area within a given time period. Any sections deemed beyond the term count won't be marked. Assigned theses have specific deadlines, if you must be on time therefore you have to develop a right schedule. English literature study material also has paper samples which have been written before, which can give guidance to students on the best way to proceed with their own writing. Students that should write literature reviews must dedicate lots of time to do it since it isn't an easy endeavor. 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Research might be a vital part of the thesis writing, if you're doing not accomplish your analysis, after which you might not have the ability to write per the wants. Many students become stressed with complicated tasks like writing literature review papers. The subject of a guide determines the points which will be us ed. The narrower your topic is, the simpler it is going to be to limit the range of sources you need to go through to find a great survey of the material.

Analysis of Property Investment Supply Council States

Question: Describe about the Analysis of Property Investment for Supply Council States. Answer: Part A Introduction In this study, discussion is to be made on the investment planning of an investor in property. For this purpose, the brief discussion is to be made on the investment option in the property. The present status of the investment project is also to be discussed in this part of the study. After the initial part of the study, the objectives and the frame of the investment are also to be discussed. The sources of funds of the investment are also to be studied in the discussion for the purpose of profitability analysis of the project. On the basis of the financial and non financial data, analysis of capital budgeting is required to be made. Furthermore, recommendation is also to be made for the investor in the last part of the discussion. Background The proposed investment in property is to be made in the area of Newcastle in New South Wales. The present status of the investment could be said as in the planning stage. As the investor is planning to invest in the property, and has no occurrence of real investment, the investment status is to be said as in planning stage (Bierman and Smidt 2012). The project is to invest in the property for earning rent on letting out. The investor is to buy a piece of building on the Newcastle area for let out purpose. The property that is selected for investment is located on north facing Gosford, rail and bus transport. The property has a nice view of the headlands. For the purpose of business in the property investment, the companies and the firms are required to apply to the municipal authority of Australia for legal requirements. Furthermore, property business in Australia also requires special attention, as the business is required to employ large amount of capital (Lai and Li 2014). As per the Australian Real Property Act 1900, the investors are required to fulfill the legal criteria, such as the special provisions of the property investment in New South Wales. The investors are required to disclose the funding details for such investment. The rules relating to the property investment includes facilitating the customers to get basic s ervices like proper safety and availability of waters. Civil Law Act 2006 also forces the property owners to ensure the road facility to the customers and other users of the property. The Law of Property Act is to be obeyed by the building owners to get the registration of the building or other property (van der Laan and Teunter 2012). In other investment criteria, the investor could invest in the stock market or in derivative market. In Australia, the stock market reflected an average return of 12% and the derivative market shown an average return of 11.5% for the last 10 years (Gigler et al. 2014). As just mentioned the real estate and the property investment project yield around 13% over the same period (Grant 2016). Therefore, it can be said that the investment option in the properties is better than the other investment options. From the above discussion, it could be said that the investor is to set up the business of investing in property by abiding the legal guidelines of the country. As per the opinion of (Gaetti 2013), risk return analysis of a project is required to be considered by the owners in at the initial level to analyze the profitability of the project. The security factors are required to be fulfilled by the owners, as the safety factors are to be taken as the most important factor in Australia. Therefore, it can be said that the investor is required to abide by the Australian property laws with preference with the other business factors such as risk return analysis. Sponsor objectives The investor in this project is looking for a secured long-term investment for 10 years. The investment is secured because based on the current market data the demand for rental property is very high and is expected to grow in the coming years. The property is expected to grow at the rate 5% per year in valuation so at the end of the investment life cycle the investor will also enjoy a capital gain. All this makes the property investment project attractive and safe (Finnerty 2013). Funding The capital for the project is to be accumulated by the owner for the purpose of investment in the property. There are two sources of funding one internal source and another external source. In the internal source, the investor has options like funding from internal source of capital and in the external source, the required fund can be borrowed from lenders. There are certain advantages and disadvantages in both the sources internal and external sources of funding. The internal source of funding is more costly as the investor cannot get tax benefit for the cost of internal sources of capital but it is the most secured way of funding a project (Sehgal et al. 2015). The external sources of funding are less costly but there is high risk associated with this type of funding. Therefore, a mix of both the internal and external sources of fund is use for financing the project so that risk and cost can both be effectively managed. The mix of financing that is used in the current property inv estment project is 70% own funding and 30% external funding. Part B Discounted Cash Flow The discounted cash flow statement is prepared applying the concept of time value of money. The concept of time value of money states that amount of money paid or received at a future date is of more value than the amount received at the current date. The discounted cash flow statement finds the appropriate value of future cash flow at present value term. The discounting term is used because the present value of the cash flow is always lower than the future value of cash flow (French 2013). The Discounted cash flow analysis techniques are used to calculate the present value of the future cash flow of the finance and real estate project. The procedure that is used under this method for valuing the real-estate project consists of three steps. The forest step is to forecast expected future cash flow from the project. The second step is to establish the required rate of return and the third step is to calculate the present value of the future cash flow by using the discounting rate (Demo ng et al. 2014). The expected future cash flow of the project is prepared by estimating a cash flow for the future period. In order to prepare the cash flow few important figures like the initial investment made, rent received, inflation rate and taxes are required. In this section the discounted cash flow of the property invest is analyzed. In order to analyze that in the given case, the cost of the investment property at New castle in New South Wales Australia is estimated to be $950000.00. The additional cost that is required to be incurred in addition to the cost of the project is $23000.00. The additional costs include $1075.00 for legal expenses, $21187.60 for the stamp duty and other government charges and $737.00 for other cost of purchasing. Therefore, the total outlay from the project is $973000.00. The funding of the project is to be done using two sources of finance that is own capital and borrowed funds (Enever et al. 2014). The funds are borrowed at the rate from 3.39% from the lenders. The expected return on capital is 1.89% therefore the weighted average cost of capital comes to 2.34%. The anticipated revenue is calculated by estimating the annual rental income which is $94656.00. The expenses that is estimated per annum is $5080.00 this include the body corporate per annum $ 1500.00, rates per annum is $1760.00, insurance per annum $1500.00 and other expenses is $320.00. The inflation rate is estimated to be 3% and for calculating the discount cash flow the inflation rate is taken, is 3%. On the basis of the above estimated revenue and expenses the discounted cash flow statement is prepared for 10 years. The analyses of the discounted cash flow statement are given below. In the initial year, cash outlay is $973000.00 and from the next year the rent received and the annual expenditure amount is adjusted with the inflation figure. The project starts to earn profit from the first year of its operation. The actual profit from the property investment project has continued to grow from the first year until the 10th year. The discounted profit however has continuously fallen for each preceding year but it has remained positive. After conducting a thorough analysis of the discounted cash flow of the investment project, it can be said that the project is profitable and will give positive return for 10 years (Jandhyala 2013). Discount Rate The discounted cash flow is prepared by applying appropriate discount rate. The discount rate chosen is dependent on multiple factors. The calculation and the factors are discussed hereafter to provide appropriate justification for choosing the discount rate. The discount rate used for evaluating the investment project is calculated by adding weighted average cost of capital, risk margin on investment and profit margin required from investment. The weighted average cost of capital indicates the average rate that is expected to be paid to the financers of the assets (Mishan 2015). The risk free rate of return from 10-year government bond is 1.89% so this is used as the opportunity cost for calculating of equity capital. This opportunity cost of 1.89% is used for calculating weighted average cost of capital. The interest rate of 3.39% taken for calculating WACC is chosen from various alternatives as shown in the appendices. Then the weighted average cost of capital is calculated and th at comes to 2.34%. Then with the WACC, the risk margin is added. The risk margin is the value that takes into account the volatility of the market. The more volatility means higher risk margin and lower volatility means low risk margin. The risk margin rate that is used for the current project is 3% based on the current market volatility. The profit margin of 5% that is added is based on the general market conditions. The profit margin is the profit that is expected from the project. Therefore, the discount rate that is used for evaluating the investment property project is 10.34%. It can be seen from the above discussion that the discount rate adopted in evaluating the project is based on detailed calculation and after taking into account the general market condition. Net Present Value There are three different options available to investors for analyzing the project this three options are net present value, payback period method and internal rate of return. Many investors for evaluating the projects primarily use the net present value methods. It is because this method considers time value of money and it gives concrete numbers to the investors for comparing the initial cash outlay with the discounted return (Luukka and Collan 2015). The Net Present value can be defined as the difference between the present value of cash inflows and present value cash outflows. If the net present value of an investment project is positive then it indicates that the anticipated earning of the project is more than the cost of project. Therefore, it can be said that if the net present value of the project is positive then the project should be undertaken as this project is profitable. If on the other hand the net present value of the project is negative then it is advisable that inve stment should not be made on that project. A project with the positive NPV should be accepted and this is the basic concept for evaluating project based on net present value and this is known as NPV rule (Bozorgi 2015). In the current property investment project the net present value of the discounted cash flow is $523248.00. Then as per the NPV rule, the project should be accepted, as the discounted cash flow from the project is positive. This positive cash flow of $523248.00 indicates that after taking into account all the cash outflow of the project from the beginning to the end of the project life cycle of 10 years the investment project is producing a positive cash inflow for the investor. Therefore, if the project is to be analyzed based on NPV then the project should be adopted. On analyzing the discounted cash flow, it is clear that the estimated payback period of the project is at the tenth year (Koudijs and Salisbury 2016). This means that more than half of the project life cycle will be required to recover the initial cash outlay. When a projected is evaluated based on the payback period method then projects with less pay back periods are accepted over the projects having higher pay back period. Therefore, the investor should appropriately analyze the project and should not base its conclusion by using only one evaluation method. Internal Rate of Return The internal rate of return measures the profitability of the investment project and it is very useful in evaluating various investment proposals. The internal rate of return is that discounting rate at which the present value of cash inflow is equal to present value of cash outflow. If the internal rate of return is used then the net present value of the project will be equal to zero. In general, a project with the internal rate of return more than the cost of capital is considered profitable so it will be beneficial for the company to undertake such projects. In evaluating an investment project, the investor usually establishes the required rate of return it is the minimum rate of return required by an investor (Ohman et al. 2013). If the Internal rate of return of the project is less than the required rate of return then the project should be rejected. If the internal rate of return of the project is more than the required rate of return then the project should be accepted. This i s known as the Internal Rate of Return rule. An analysis of the project based only on the IRR will not give the complete picture so it should be used along with the NPV to make the appropriate decision. In the property investment project the internal rate of return is 16.55% the required rate of return is 10.34%. Based on the internal rate of return rule the project should be accepted as the higher IRR than the cost of capital suggest that the project will be profitable. Risks The investment project is evaluated based on estimates. The estimates are prepared based on the current informations available and as the circumstances changes the estimates of the projects changes (Sen 2013). The risk therefore can be defined as the difference between the original outcome and the expected outcome of the project. In the current property investment project the occupancy rate of the property is estimated to be 95% based on the current information available. If the demand of the commercial property declines in the coming years then it will affect the occupancy rate that is initially estimated. If the occupancy rate that is initially estimated changes then the cash inflow per year will also be affected. This in turn will affect the calculations of net present value, payback period and the internal rate of return thus the entire evaluation criteria will change. In such circumstances, the project that was initially thought to be profitable may due to changed circumstances become loss making. The risk that the actual outcome of the project may differ from the original outcome is inherent in every project evaluation (HÃ…â„ ¢ebÄ ek et al. 2014). In general, the risks of investing in rental property are discussed below: There is a possibility that the property could be rented to a bad tenants. That means irregular rent, damage to the property etc. There is also a possibility that there may not be any tenant available. Then at that time the property will only have cash outflow but not cash inflow. The expense could grow beyond expectations then at such circumstances the expense will be more than the expected so it could be more than the rent. The value of the property may fall due to changing circumstances. Conclusion The analysis of the property investment project in New South Wales has shown that a property in that area will cost $950000.00. In addition to this, another $23000.00 will be required to complete the project. Therefore, the total cash outflow will be $973000.00. The annual rental income of the property is $94656.00 and it is adjusted in accordance with the inflation rate (Zhou 2014). After analyzing the statement, showing the calculation of the net present value and IRR it can be seen that the project has a positive net present value of $523248.00 and the IRR is 16.55%. As can be seen both the indicators shows a positive sign except the fact that the pay beck period of the cash flow is in 10th year. Recommendation In Australia, there is a housing shortage. The report of the National Housing Supply council states that enough houses are not being built by the private and public sector. It is therefore estimated that rental charge will grow as the demand for house increases. The investment in property is a strategy for long-term wealth creation and it can provide consistent return to the investor. Based on the above analysis of the discounted cash flow statement of the project and after evaluating the net present value and the internal rate of return of the project it is recommended that the property investment proposal should be accepted. The current real-estate market in Australia is showing continues growth but if the market slows down and occupancy rate dips. Then as the property is in prime area and it is estimated that the value of the property will increase by 10% so the property can be easily sold and the investor could make reasonable profit by timely existing the loss making investment. The list of recommendations that an investor should follow for the property investment are given below: Investor should arrange own fund for investment. Investor should arrange the additional loan fund required. Investor should arrange for a lawyer to take care for all legal formalities for the property. Investor should make advertisement for tenant. Reference Bierman Jr, H. and Smidt, S., 2012.The capital budgeting decision: economic analysis of investment projects. Routledge. Bozorgi, A., 2015. Integrating value and uncertainty in the energy retrofit analysis in real estate investmentnext generation of energy efficiency assessment tools.Energy Efficiency,8(5), pp.1015-1034. Demong, N.A.R., Lu, J. and Hussain, F.K., 2014. Personalised Property Investment Risk Analysis Model in the Real Estate Industry. InHuman-Centric Decision-Making Models for Social Sciences(pp. 369-390). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Enever, N., Isaac, D. and Daley, M., 2014.The valuation of property investments. Taylor Francis. Finnerty, J.D., 2013.Project financing: Asset-based financial engineering. John Wiley Sons. French, N., 2013. The discounted cash flow model for property valuations: quarterly in advance cash flows.Journal of Property Investment Finance,31(6), pp.610-614. Gatti, S., 2013.Project finance in theory and practice: designing, structuring, and financing private and public projects. Academic Press. Gigler, F., Kanodia, C., Sapra, H. and Venugopalan, R., 2014. How Frequent Financial Reporting Can Cause Managerial Shortà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Termism: An Analysis of the Costs and Benefits of Increasing Reporting Frequency.Journal of Accounting Research,52(2), pp.357-387. Grant, R.M., 2016.Contemporary strategy analysis: Text and cases edition. John Wiley Sons. HÃ…â„ ¢ebÄ ek, J., Soukopov, J., tencl, M. and Trenz, O., 2014. Integration of economic, environmental, social and corporate governance performance and reporting in enterprises.Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis,59(7), pp.157-166. Jandhyala, S., 2013. Property rights and international investment in information technology services.Strategic Management Journal,34(7), pp.877-889. Koudijs, P. and Salisbury, L., 2016.Bankruptcy and Investment: Evidence from Changes in Marital Property Laws in the US South, 1840-1850(No. w21952). National Bureau of Economic Research. Lai, Y.F. and Li, K.Y., 2014. A Research on the Methods of Economics Evaluation and Analysis on the Tourism Investment Project.International Journal of Management Science and Engineering Research,1, pp.7-10. Luukka, P. and Collan, M., 2015. New fuzzy insurance pricing method for giga-investment project insurance.Insurance: Mathematics and Economics,65, pp.22-29. Mishan, E.J., 2015.Elements of Cost-Benefit Analysis (Routledge Revivals). Routledge. Ohman, P., Sderberg, B. and Westerdahl, S., 2013. Property investor behaviour: qualitative analysis of a very large transaction.Journal of Property Investment Finance,31(6), pp.522-544. Sehgal, S., Upreti, M., Pandey, P. and Bhatia, A., 2015. Real Estate Investment Selection and Empirical Analysis of Property Prices: Study of Select Residential Projects for Gurgaon, India.International Real Estate Review,18(4), pp.523-566. Sen, A.K., 2013. Approaches to the choice of discount rates for social beneà ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ t-cost analysis.Discounting for Time and Risk in Energi'Policy, pp.325-53. van der Laan, E. and Teunter, R., 2012. Average Costs versus Net Present Value: A Comparison for Multi-source Inventory.Quantitative Approaches to Distribution Logistics and Supply Chain Management,519, p.359. Zhou, W., 2014. An accurate method for determining hesitant fuzzy aggregation operator weights and its application to project investment.International Journal of Intelligent Systems,29(7), pp.668-686.